Dear Tom,
Since hurricanes develop over saltwater oceans, does any of the rain come
down as salt water?
John
Dear John,
A raindrop is pure water (with the exception of the condensation nucleus
around which it initially formed and any pollutants such as smoke or
bacteria it might have picked up from the atmosphere). Rainwater is pure
because materials like salt dissolved in ocean water remain behind when
water evaporates from the ocean surface, and that's fortunate because sea
water contains a great deal of salt.
Herbert Swenson of the U.S. Geological Survey tells us ocean water contains
about 35 pounds of salt per 1,000 pounds of water. One inch of rain across
Chicago's 228.5 square miles of area yields 33.1 billion pounds of water. If
rainwater contained salt at the concentration of ocean water, 1.2 billion
pounds of salt would accompany every one-inch rain across the city.
ASK TOM WHY: August 2008 Archives
Dear Tom,
What constitutes a sunny day?
How many sunny days a year does Chicago get as compared to southeast Florida?
Mike Priory, Ft. Lauderdale
Dear Mike,
We checked with Chicago climatologist Frank Wachowski, who maintains Chicago’s
sunshine records, and he told us that while the definition is somewhat subjective, he
considers a day to be sunny if it has less than three-tenths cloud cover in daylight and
records 90 percent or more of the possible sunshine. Believe it or not, Chicago averages
83 sunny days a year, compared with only 74 in southeast Florida, a result of the almost
daily clouds that form in the tropical Florida air masses. However, a more realistic
comparison would be in percent of possible sunshine, and southeast Florida wins that
hands down, logging around 70 percent annually compared with Chicago’s 54 percent.
Dear Tom,
Has a Gulf of Mexico hurricane ever crossed Mexico and entered the Pacific?
If it did would it keep the same name?
Charles Schmitz, Burbank
Dear Charles,
It doesn't happen often, but since the advent of weather satellites in the
1960s there have been at least eight documented cases where a tropical
cyclone has traveled from the Gulf or Caribbean into the Pacific or
vice-versa. When this does occur, the storm is renamed with the next name on
the new basin's list. In 1996, Atlantic Hurricane Cesar became Pacific
Hurricane Douglas after crossing southern Nicaragua. In similar fashion,
Tropical Storm Bret became Hurricane Greg when it entered the Pacific in
1993. In 1989 Hurricane Cosme changed gender and became Tropical Storm
Allison after it survived a trip across Mexico and moved into the Gulf of
Mexico, eventually making a Texas landfall south of Houston.
Dear Tom,
Gustav is heading toward the U.S. with Hanna following. Have two tropical cyclones
have ever run into each other?
Bob Freed Naperville
Dear Bob,
When two tropical cyclones get close to each other (less than a thousand miles), they
do not collide, but rather rotate around each other cyclonically (counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere), a result of the Fujiwhara effect. This motion is named after the
Japanese meteorologist Sakuhei Fujiwhara who described it in a 1921 paper dealing
with the motion of whirls in water. A classic example of the Fujiwhara effect took place
in August 1995 when Tropical Storm Iris was interacting with Hurricane Humberto. With
time, the storms often drift apart and move their separate ways, but if one is
significantly stronger it may eventually absorb the other storm into its circulation.
Dear Tom,
Has a tropical storm's name ever been retired?
Tom Urban Oak Park
Dear Tom,
It's happened only once and that was Tropical Storm Allison, which made landfall near
Houston on June 5, 2001. Though never achieving hurricane status, Allison, with top
winds of only 58 m.p.h., was a slow-moving and prolific rainmaker much like recent
Tropical Storm Fay. The storm brought more than 36 inches of rain to the Houston area
as it meandered for days along the northeast Texas coast. After drowning Texas,
Allison's heavy rains tracked across the Gulf Coast region and then turned northeast
into southern New England and the Canadian Maritimes. It finally headed out into the
Atlantic on June 18.
In addition to catastrophic flooding, Allison produced 23 tornadoes and was
responsible for at least 50 deaths and $3 billion in property damage.
Hi Tom,
My wife and I are having a disagreement as to what comes first: thunder or lightning.
There is a lot riding on your answer.
-Bill & Maureen Lahtinen, Elk Grove Village, Ill.
Dear Bill and Maureen,
Lightning always occurs first -- always -- because lightning causes thunder. The
electric spark that constitutes a lightning bolt heats the air through which it passes to
at least 50,000 degrees in thousandths of a second. Explosive expansion of the air
immediately occurs, followed by cooling and sudden contraction. These events trigger
waves in the air which we interpret as thunder. The initial thunder that you hear comes
from the point on the lightning channel closest to you; the last sound comes from the
most distant point.
It will be difficult, probably impossible, to pair each lightning discharge with the
thunder that it produces when an active thunderstorm is generating very frequent
lightning strokes.
Dear Tom,
As summer begins to wind down, when can we expect our first high temperatures
below 70 degrees? How about back-to-back days of sub-70-degree highs?
-Matt Balitewicz, East Chicago, Indiana
Dear Matt,
A few "cool" summer days (defined as days whose maximum temperature fails to break
out of the 60s) occur all through the summer, but not very often.
A scan of 80 years of daily highs registered at Midway Airport during the last week of
July and first week of August indicates that sub-70-degree highs occurred only 19
times, or one day out of 59. That frequency increases to one day out of 28 at the end of
August and one out of two by the end of September. The average date of the city's first
sub-70 day in the autumn is Sept. 10, and the first back-to-back sub-70 days can be
expected a week later, Sept. 16-17. A string of three such days is likely by Sept. 22-24.
Dear Tom,
Please refresh our memories of the August 1987 flood.
Thanks, Larry
Dear Larry,
August 1987 had opened hot and dry in Chicago, and vegetation was stressed
from the lack of rain. With a front setting up west of the city on Aug. 13,
forecasters were hopeful for some much-needed rain. Well, the rains came,
but unfortunately they didn't stop. Torrential downpours descended upon the
Chicago region as repeat waves of thunderstorms "trained" over areas from
Rockford to Chicago's North Side. When the rains finally ended more than 17
hours later, 9.35 inches of rain had inundated the O'Hare area, making it an
inaccessible island for nearly 24 hours. Three people died and flood damage
exceeded $220 million. The wet weather continued, and by the end of the
month O'Hare had logged 17.10 inches of rain, making August 1987 the city's
wettest month on record.
Dear Tom,
Why did the winds of Hurricane Fay increase while the storm was over land? I thought
hurricanes dissipated when they move over land.
William Brown, Chicago
Dear William,
Fay's sustained winds topped out at 60-65 m.p.h., below minimum hurricane strength of
74 m.p.h., and so Fay spent her life as a tropical storm (sustained winds 39-73 m.p.h.).
However, you are correct to state that hurricanes and tropical storms weaken and
eventually dissipate over land. The weather sometimes breaks the rules, if only briefly,
and Fay’s highest winds did, indeed, occur after the storm moved inland. After landfall,
conditions in the upper atmosphere (generally above 30,000 feet) became more favorable
for "ventilation"--dispersion away from the top of the storm of air rising through the body
of the storm—and Fay's winds strengthened 5-10 m.p.h to 60-65 m.p.h.
Dear Tom,
Forecasters keep talking about how many hurricanes we've had, citing how the
list of names was exhausted in 2005. I remember that they only used to name
hurricanes and not tropical storms when I was a girl (many years ago). When
did they start naming tropical storms?
Pam from Hinsdale
Dear Pam,
The practice of naming Atlantic Basin tropical cyclones started in 1950 with
the use of the phonetic alphabet (Able, Baker, Charlie, etc.), then switched
to all female names in 1953 and finally to alternating male and female names
in 1979, a practice still followed today. From the very start, both tropical
storms and hurricanes were given names, but in checking the list of storm
names from the 1950s and '60s we noticed several storms that were assigned
numbers rather than names for a variety of reasons, and this may well be
what you are remembering.
Dear Tom,
In July, 1943 I was on a troop train from traveling from Atlanta into Missouri. One
morning the train was traveling very slowly and we could see nothing but water. Was
there flooding in the Midwest that summer?
Don Willing Thornton, Ill.
Dear Don,
In late spring and early summer of 1943 much of the Midwest was besieged by repeat
bouts of heavy rainfall. Major flooding followed on many of the region's rivers including
the Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, Illinois and Wabash, leaving hundreds of
thousands of acres of farmland under water. Some of the worst conditions were in the
St. Louis area near the confluence of the flood-swollen Missouri and Mississippi rivers,
where thousands of people were stranded. Precipitation totals were impressive. In June,
1943 St. Joseph, Missouri was swamped by nearly 16 inches of rain while nearby
Maryville received nearly 13.5 inches.
Dear Tom,
How far north has a hurricane ever moved? Has one ever reached Canada?
Nick Recchia, River Grove, Ill.
Dear Nick,
It happens about once every four years, and here are two of the worst.
On Sept. 9, 1775, a northward-bound hurricane swept across the Newfoundland Banks
off Canada's eastern maritime provinces, drowning 4,000 sailors. But that was not a
land-falling storm.
Hurricane Hazel was.
Formed near the tropical island of Grenada on Oct. 5, 1954, Hazel trekked northward
across Haiti (1,000 deaths) and the Bahamas (six deaths), making landfall in North
Carolina (19 deaths) with 130 m.p.h. winds. Hazel then blasted 600 miles overland,
bringing 11 inches of rain and 80-m.p.h. winds to Toronto, Canada, claiming 81 lives.
The storm continued northeast as a vigorous low pressure system, crossing the North
Atlantic Ocean and the Arctic Circle, eventually dissipating over Scandinavia.
Dear Tom:
Tornado warnings always include the admonition to stay indoors, away from windows. I
don't understand this because such storms create low pressure outside buildings that
would cause windows to blow out, with no harm from breaking glass to the building's
occupants.
Charles Stewart, Gladstone, Mich.
Dear Charles,
It was once believed a sudden large reduction in air pressure in tornadoes caused
windows and even entire buildings to "explode" outward. But newer information gleaned
from analyses of videos of tornadoes actually destroying buildings and from
wind-tunnel tests that simulate tornadic conditions give no evidence of such
explosions.
We now understand that tornadic winds can penetrate buildings. Windows often shatter
inward, spraying rooms with deadly shards of glass. In fact, flying debris in the primary
cause of death and injury during tornadoes.
Dear Tom,
Twenty-five years ago I was caught out on Lake Michigan in a terrible storm. The storm
took off roofs and capsized dozens of boats. What information do you have on this
storm?
Ralph Bassett, Wilmette
Dear Ralph,
The storm that you remember struck during the evening hours of July 19, 1983, with
wind gusts clocked as high as 87 m.p.h. at far northwest suburban Woodstock. The
storm produced an extensive swath of damage to buildings, trees and power lines. Nine
planes were overturned at DuPage Airport, and a 50 foot luxury cruiser moored at Navy
Pier sank during the storm. The fast-moving storm produced a seiche on the lake
resulting in a rapid fluctuation of water levels along the Chicago shore. Wind clocked in
the city were not quite as strong, reaching 69 m.p.h. at O'Hare International Airport and
55 m.p.h. at Midway. Temperatures crashed in the wake of the storm dropping from 81
to 69 degrees in less than an hour.
Dear Tom,
I flew in World War II, and we often saw lightning hit the aircraft and
dance along the leading edge of the wings. We called it St. Vitus dance. Who
was St. Vitus?
Chester Sowinski, Wheaton
Dear Chester,
St. Vitus is the patron saint of actors and dancers, but he is also said to
protect against lightning. However, the phenomenon that you observed is more
commonly called St. Elmo's fire -- a corona or point discharge that occurs
when the environmental electrical field is high, especially on pointed
objects such as lightning rods, chimneys and airplane wings. The electrical
charge on the pointed surfaces can be as much as 10,000 times stronger than
in nearby open locations, causing the air to ionize and produce a luminous,
usually bluish glow. Sailors observed this atop ships' masts and named it
St. Elmo's fire after St, Erasmus, the patron saint of sailors.
Dear Tom,
I regularly see Stanley, Idaho, listed as the coldest spot in the nation. Why is Stanley so
cold?
-Jim Kautz, Geneva
Dear Jim,
Stanley, Idaho, is a frequent winner in the "coldest in the nation" sweepstakes. This
small, picturesque town in the southcentral portion of the state is about 130 miles
northeast of Boise. The official thermometer is 2 miles east of town at an elevation of
6,495 feet. Stanley's infamous low temperatures can be attributed to the town's position
beneath the 12,000-foot snowcapped peaks of the Sawtooth and White Cloud
Mountains. Dense cold air descends from those peaks into the valley around Stanley,
prompting the very chilly readings. While many of Stanley's national lows occur in
summer, it also gets frigid in winter, with that location's all-time record low of 54
degrees below zero on Dec. 23, 1983.
Dear Mr. Skilling,
What kind of hurricane season is expected?
Roger Smolich
Dear Roger,
The National Weather Service's Climate Prediction Center (CPC) released its
updated outlook for the 2008 hurricane season on Aug. 7, and that outlook
anticipates a very active season in the Atlantic basin.
It calls for 14-18 named hurricanes, versus a long-term average of eight. In
addition, it projects that three to six of them will be major hurricanes
(sustained winds of 111 m.p.h. or higher), versus a long-term average of
two.
CPC's lead hurricane forecaster Dr. Gerry Bell, noting the onset of a 20-40
year cycle of increased hurricane activity that began in 1995, says
additional factors that favor an active season in the Atlantic basin this
year include, "...reduced wind shear, weaker trade winds, an active West
African monsoon system ... and warmer-than-average water in the Atlantic
Ocean."
Dear Tom,
During recent severe storms, my mother-in-law said that she felt safe because it was
raining, which to her meant there can't be a tornado. Is there any truth to this?
Emlyn Hockin, Chicago
Dear Emlyn,
Absolutely no truth at all, but it's a common misconception. Jan Schaller, who
experienced the 1967 Oak Lawn tornado but remembers no rain during that event,
and Marcia Gross of Crown Point, Ind., whose high school science teacher said the
chance of a tornado is zero if it's raining, posed similar questions.
Most assuredly, rain can accompany a tornado.
Tornadoes exist is an environment of spiraling and strongly rising air, usually in the
southwest quadrant of the parent thunderstorm and a mile or two from the storm's
rain area. But winds swirling out of that rain area often carry rain entirely around the
tornado, thereby giving rise to a "rain-wrapped tornado."
Dear Tom,
Your recently stated that our highest temperature so far this year has only been 91
degrees. Has Chicago ever had a year without a 90?
Rich Pokorski Morton Grove, Bob Ebersold Berwyn
Dear Rich and Bob,
Checking Chicago weather records dating back to 1871 there has been only one year
where the mercury failed to reach 90 degrees. In 1875 the highest official temperature
was 89 degrees logged on June 11. In those days the city's official thermometer was
located downtown, very close to Lake Michigan, so it is almost a certainty that inland
areas did reach the 90s. Forty years later in 1915, the city came close to another year
without a 90. But during a late-season hot spell, the mercury spiked to 90 degrees on
Sept. 14. Since the city's official thermometer was moved inland in 1942, the fewest
90s in a year have been two in 1979, three in 2004 and four each in 1967 and 2000.
Dear Tom,
Your recently stated that our highest temperature so far this year has only been 91
degrees. Has Chicago ever had a year without a 90?
Rich Pokorski Morton Grove, Bob Ebersold Berwyn
Dear Rich and Bob,
Checking Chicago weather records dating back to 1871 there has been only one year
where the mercury failed to reach 90 degrees. In 1875 the highest official temperature
was 89 degrees logged on June 11. In those days the city's official thermometer was
located downtown, very close to Lake Michigan, so it is almost a certainty that inland
areas did reach the 90s. Forty years later in 1915, the city came close to another year
without a 90. But during a late-season hot spell, the mercury spiked to 90 degrees on
Sept. 14. Since the city's official thermometer was moved inland in 1942, the fewest
90s in a year have been two in 1979, three in 2004 and four each in 1967 and 2000.
Dear Tom,
When it comes to humidity who has it worse- the Chicago area or Florida?
-Jim Carter
Dear Jim,
Humidity comparisons in terms of human comfort are best made with dew point, a
direct measure of atmospheric-moisture content. Most people begin to feel
uncomfortable when the dew point reaches the middle 60s. When it crosses the
threshold of 70, almost everyone is miserable. During a typical warm season, the
Chicago area will experience 70 degrees or higher on about 30 days. It would be
unusual for Florida dew points to not to reach the 70-degree level on any day during a
typical warm season. In fact, dew points in Florida and throughout the southeast
frequently approach 80 degrees in summer, something that has officially happened
only six times in the Chicago area since 1871.
Dear Tom,
Who coined the term, "global warming"?
Billy Evans, Maywood, Ill.
Dear Billy,
Two weeks ago, we contacted the man who put "global warming" in the world's
consciousness and his humble response was, "I guess I did, but it was inadvertent."
Those are the words of Dr. Wallace Broecker, the world's premier authority on abrupt
global climate change and a long-time researcher at Columbia University's
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.
And you will be surprised to learn that "Wally," as he chooses to be called, is a native of
west suburban Oak Park.
In 1975, worldwide temperatures had been falling for 20 years (Chicago's too) and the
concern was that the planet was heading into a new ice age. Broecker dismissed that
concern and, in the same year, published a paper titled, "Climate Change: Are We on the
Brink of a Pronounced Global Warming?" The phrase caught on.
Dear Tom,
Automobiles are always mentioned as one of the contributors to global
warming because they produce carbon dioxide. How much does a car produce?
Richard Waller, Chicago
Dear Richard,
You probably don't realize how much carbon dioxide (CO2) you're putting into
the atmosphere when you operate your automobile. If your car gets 26 miles
per gallon (and that is much better than the national average of 21 mpg),
one pound of CO2 comes out of your tailpipe every mile.
CO2 exists naturally as a trace component of the atmosphere (amounting to
385 parts per million (ppm) of dry air). Despite its low concentration, it
is a powerful "greenhouse gas" in that it contributes to the atmosphere's
ability to retain heat (the so-called greenhouse effect).
Right now, CO2 concentration is increasing at a rate of just under 2 ppm per
year, and automobiles are a big contributor.
Dear Tom,
Are there specific conditions which predispose to visualization of a double or
supernumerary rainbow?
-Jon Sebastian, Bensenville
Dear Jon,
Area residents were treated to a display of double rainbows (primary and secondary) on
three occasions last spring. A primary rainbow forms when sunlight passes through
raindrops and, after refraction and a single reflection within a raindrop,returns to our eyes
separated into the colors of the spectrum. A wider, fainter secondary rainbow forms
outside the primary when some of the light is reflected twice within the raindrops before
emerging. Supernumerary rainbows sometimes form inside the primary when the
raindrops are all very uniform in size. They result from interference of light, which
undergoes a single internal reflection but travels along different paths inside a raindrop.
Dear Tom,
My husband noticed clouds moving from north to south and from west to east
at the same time. Is this because winds were changing with altitude?
Carol Richart
Dear Carol,
You are absolutely correct. Clouds range from stratus and fog that hug the
ground to feathery ice-crystalline cirrus found above 30,000 feet to the
anvil tops of thunderstorms that can reach more than 60,000 feet into the
atmosphere. Cloud movement is, of course, determined by wind -- and winds
can change dramatically with height depending upon the meteorological
scenario. A common occurrence in Chicago would be low-level winds below
8,000 feet blowing from east to west while jet stream-level winds above
25,000 feet are traveling from west to east. In meteorology, when the wind
direction changes clockwise with height winds are said to be veering, and
when shifting counter-clockwise they are backing.
Dear Tom,
What is Chicago's record for consecutive days with 90-degree or higher temperatures?
And with so few 90-degree days this year, what is the longest stretch between 90
degree days?
Nick Recchia, River Grove, Ill.
Dear Nick,
When it comes to hot days, think of Chicago as a city with two climates: a cool regime
within about a mile of Lake Michigan that gradually morphs into a hot "inland" climate
beyond five miles from the shore.
On average, the lake zone experiences far fewer 90-degree days per year (eight) than
inland (24 at Midway Airport). Consecutive 90-degree days at the lakefront rarely
extend beyond five days, but Midway has logged a string of 12 days at or above 90
degrees (July 6-17, 1936).
Downtown Chicago went without a single 90-degree day from Aug. 22, 1874, to July 5,
1876 -- 684 days. At Midway, the longest such stretch is 340 days (July 2, 1967 to June
5, 1968).
Dear Tom,
Does sunset occur when the sun first touches the horizon or when it dips below it?
Dan Stecich Orland Park
Dear Dan,
Sunset and sunrise are defined as the moment that the upper edge of the sun's disc
touches the horizon. At the exact time of sunrise or sunset the sun's disc is actually
below the horizon, but because the Earth's atmosphere bends or refracts light, we are
able to see the sun earlier in the morning and later in the evening than if we were
viewing it in a vacuum. Since the higher we are, the farther we can see, a person atop a
high-rise building or on a mountain will actually experience an earlier sunrise and a
later sunset than someone at ground level. Also the few extra minutes that we are able
to see the sun is the reason that the length of daylight on the equinoxes or at the
equator is slightly greater than 12 hours.
Dear Tom,
I live on the northwest side of Chicago and we had half-inch hail in the storms Monday
evening. Has hail ever caused any deaths?
John Lewis, Chicago
Dear John,
Large hail is extremely costly, with annual damage totals approaching, and
sometimes exceeding, $1 billion but, in the United States at least, deaths
attributed to hail are exceedingly rare. Most recently, a Fort Worth
man succumbed to head injuries after being struck by a softball-sized (4.5
inches in diameter) hailstone in March, 2000. Hailstones that large weigh
several pounds and crash to earth at 90 miles per hour, making them
potential instruments of death.
An aspect of hail that is often overlooked is the significant threat that it
poses to birds. Large hail, especially when accompanied by high thunderstorm
winds, kills thousands of birds in this country every year.
Dear Mr. Skilling,
Could a hurricane be broken up by a big explosion in its eye?
Herbert Ferguson
Dear Herbert,
"Hurricane modification by any means, including brute force interference, is an exercise
in futility and impracticality." wrote Dr. Chris Landsea of the National Hurricane Center's Research Division.
The largest explosion that can be generated -- a hydrogen bomb - - is simply too
small to disrupt a hurricane, even in its formative stages.
Landsea concludes, "Perhaps the best solution is not to try to alter or destroy tropical
cyclones, but just learn to co-exist with them better."
Consider this: Hurricanes feed off the heat drawn from warm ocean water. In their
aftermath, the ocean surface is a cooler and less favorable environment for new tropical
storms. Without dissipation, the oceanic store of heat would build and build, ultimately
fueling even stronger hurricanes.
Dear Tom,
I just heard a tape of the July 23, 1976, College All-Star Football game at
Soldier Field. The game was stopped by rain. What happened?
Tony Warren
Dear Tony,
The game started in very warm, muggy conditions with temperatures in the
upper 80s. There was a threat of severe weather, and it began to rain
heavily as the game began. Small hail and gusty winds accompanied the
thunderstorms. The rain ended, and the game continued on a sloppy field.
With the Pittsburgh Steelers leading the College All-Stars 24-0 late in the
third quarter the heavens opened up again as severe thunderstorms struck.
Winds gusted to 64 m.p.h. as the rain fell in torrents. The game was
stopped, but as the players left the field unruly fans ran out and knocked
down both goal posts. Even though the rain let up the game was cancelled. It
was the last College All-Star game ever played.
Dear Tom,
What would happen to our weather if we didn't have a moon?
--Robert Lamm
Dear Robert,
In the short term, nothing at all. The moon's contribution to an atmospheric tide (and
ocean tides, as well) would cease, but without weather consequences. Through the
millenniums, though, the moon has exerted a huge stabilizing influence on the Earth's
climate. The Earth's axial spin (a spin that produces our 24-hour day) tilts at an angle of
about 66.5 degrees from the plane of our orbit around the sun. That tilt, stabilized by the
moon, causes the yearly cycle of seasons. In the moon's absence, the Earth would behave
almost like an unbalanced spinning top, with its axial tilt rolling erratically between 0 and
90 degrees over thousands of years. The result:climatic chaos with much larger
temperature swings between the warm and cold seasons.
Dear Tom,
Your weather forecasts have become noticeably more accurate over the years.
What technological advances have made that possible? Or are you just lucky?
John Carlson, Arlington Heights
Dear John,
It can't be denied: On rare occasions, luck is a factor in an accurate
weather forecast. However, a reasonably consistent record of accurate
forecasting depends on much more: At long last, weather forecasting has
truly become a science.
More now than ever before, meteorologists have a better understanding of the
atmosphere's physical processes and of the complex relationships between
air, land and oceans. Add to that astounding advances in communication,
worldwide weather observations and satellite and radar technology.
It's more information than a forecaster can handle, but today's phenomenally
speedy computers can process all the data in new, timely and imaginative
ways.
